Former prime minister John Howard has warned Australia needs to play the long game against an increasingly assertive China.
Mr Howard reflected on his time in office at the turn of the century while speaking at the release of his cabinet papers from 2001, saying China has become more aggressive under leader Xi Jinping.
"What has changed is that the attitude of the current Chinese leadership is more aggressive," he said.
Mr Howard reflected on the 2001 APEC meeting which was held in the Chinese city of Shanghai, weeks after the September 11 US terror attacks.
"What I remember was the extraordinary atmosphere of the meeting," he said.
"I recall observing the deserted streets of Shanghai with the then-American president George Bush. He said, 'John, you wouldn't get away with deserted streets in New York' and I replied: 'Nor Sydney'.
"The reality was that despite the hospitality and the friendship, it was still a dictatorial, totalitarian country but ... the civility of it was a reminder of the mood of the world at that time."
Relations between Australia and China have descended after trade sanctions were imposed and coercive demands issued to the Australian government decrying any criticism of the communist country.
Defence Minister Peter Dutton has continued to use increasingly inflammatory rhetoric around a potential conflict with China over Taiwan, which Chinese leaders have criticised as a cold war mentality by Australia.
Mr Howard attributed the changing attitude of China to the country's leadership.
He remarked on the positive relationship he was able to build with then-Chinese president Jiang Zemin, drawing a stark contrast between Chinese leadership two decades apart.
"I recall the different moods that existed. There's a world of difference between Xi Jinping and Jiang Zemin," he said.
"We are dealing with different personalities. Personalities matter at the head of government in any country but they particularly matter when the person at the head of government has all the power."
