Edinburgh and London have been named as the cities with the UK's slowest-moving traffic.
The final mile of a rush-hour journey into the Scottish and UK capitals averaged 10mph, according to research by traffic analyst Inrix.
Edinburgh motorists spent an average of 98 hours in traffic in 2019, placing it fourth behind London at 149 hours, Belfast at 112 hours per driver and Bristol at 103 hours.
The UK average of 115 hours stuck in traffic cost the country £6.9 billion and a typical driver £894, according to the study.
London was found to be the most congested city, with 149 hours lost per driver during peak periods in 2019.
Trevor Reed, transportation analyst at Inrix, said of older cities: "When you develop around walking, and horse and buggy, and everything but cars, the urban environment does not handle (cars) all that well."
He added: "You can reach a tipping point with a city. You add just enough cars to make nothing work. Sometimes you add one or two per cent more cars, and it causes a viscous cycle of congestion to set in."
